Neonatal neurological disorders involving the brainstem: Neurosonographic approaches through the squamous suture and the foramen magnum

Brainstem damage which often indicates a critical condition is usually underestimated by trans-anterior-fontanel neurosonography (NS) owing to the far-field limitations. Instead, NS alternately scanning through the squamous suture of the temporal bones and the foramen magnum could provide a better visualization of the brainstem structures. The NS characteristics of brainstem lesions caused by various neonatal neurological disorders, such as hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), metabolic encephalopathy, birth trauma and bacterial meningoencephalitis, can be depicted at the acute stage. An echogenic change in the midbrain was found in patients with HIE or metabolic encephalopathy. In addition to the echogenic change, bilateral transtentorial temporal lobe herniation distorting the contour of the midbrain was observed in a patient with group B streptococcus meningoencephalitis, whereas echogenic changes at the level of the pons and/or the medulla oblongata, mainly localized in the dorsal part, could be observed in newborns with severe HIE, maple syrup urine disease or birth trauma. In this pictorial assay, we demonstrate the feasibility of NS imaging in evaluating the entire brainstem structure of critically ill neonates in the near field and illustrate the characteristic features of brainstem involvement in various neonatal neurological disorders along with computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging correlation.