Pristimerin inhibits MMP-9 expression and cell migration through attenuating NOX/ROS-dependent NF-κB activation in rat brain astrocytes challenged with LPS

Purpose: Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in neurodegenerative diseases. Matrix metallo-proteinases (MMPs) are a landmark of neuroinflammation. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been demonstrated to induce MMP-9 expression. The mechanisms underlying LPS-induced MMP-9 expression have not been completely elucidated in astrocytes. Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) is well known as one of the crucial transcription factors in MMP-9 induction. Moreover, reactive oxygen species (ROS) could be an important mediator of neuroinflammation. Here, we differen-tiated whether ROS and NF-κB contributed to LPS-mediated MMP-9 expression in rat brain astrocytes (RBA-1). Besides, pristimerin has been revealed to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. We also evaluated the effects of pristimerin on LPS-induced inflammatory responses. Methods: RBA-1 cells were used for analyses. Pharmacological inhibitors and siRNAs were used to evaluate the signaling pathway. Western blotting and gelatin zymography were conducted to evaluate protein and MMP-9 expression, respectively. Real-time PCR was for mRNA expression. Wound healing assay was for cell migration. 2ʹ,7ʹ-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diace-tate (H₂DCF-DA) and dihydroethidium (DHE) staining were for ROS generation. Immunofluorescence staining was conducted to assess NF-κB p65. Promoter-reporter gene assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay were used to detect promoter activity and the association of nuclear proteins with the promoter. Results: Our results showed that the increased level of ROS generation was attenuated by edaravone (a ROS scavenger), apocynin (APO; an inhibitor of p47^Phox), diphenyleneiodonium (DPI; an inhibitor of NOX), and pristimerin in RBA-1 cells exposed to LPS. Besides, pretreat-ment with APO, DPI, edaravone, Bay11-7082, and pristimerin also inhibited the phosphoryla-tion, nuclear translocation, promoter binding activity of NF-κB p65 as well as upregulation of MMP-9 expression-mediated cell migration in RBA-1 cells challenged with LPS. Conclusion: These results suggested that LPS enhances the upregulation of MMP-9 through nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX)/ROS-dependent NF-κB activity. These results also provide new insights into the mechanisms by which pristi-merin attenuates LPS-mediated MMP-9 expression and neuroinflammatory responses.